Belisarius: Justinian’s 'Tip of the Spear' in the Restoration of the Western Roman Empire

By Alexandros Boufesis

Part I: Origins, The Persian Wars, and the Nika Riots

(Please note, this is Part I of two parts. This post will be updated when Part II has been published in the newsletter. Subscribe to the newsletter to receive posts before they are published on the website.)

Origins: Justinian and Belisarius

The sixth century CE found the Eastern Roman Empire — or Byzantium, as it came to be known — at a crossroads. The empire’s political volatility in the interior, combined with ever rising transnational threats, had already set in motion forces that threatened its coherence and existence.

The Eastern Roman Empire at 550 CE, under Emperor Justinian

Justinian in the Revenna Mosaic in the Basiica in San Vitale (Wikicommons)

The rise of Justinian the First (or Justinian the Great) signified the start of a new era, when a “Dreamer emperor” accomplished the restoration of the Western Roman Empire (even briefly), which had fallen to the Goths in 410 CE despite the odds and having had to face multiple internal and external opponents.

Justinian’s restored empire could not have been accomplished without Belisarius, one of the greatest generals of the Middle Ages and according to many historians, one of the greatest military figures of all time. Belisarius came to act as the extension of Justinian’s will, word, might and vision, although their relationship was plagued by the emperor’s envy and mistrust, fueled by Empress Theodora’s political machinations.

Belisarius is thought to be the figure to the right of Justinian in the Revenna Mosaic (Wikicommons)

Belisarius, according to some sources, was born in the town of Germanicia, modern day Sapareva Banya, in southwestern Bulgaria, then Thrace. Other sources, though, report that he was born in Illyria, as was Justinian. Although the exact year of his birth is not known, he was most probably born around 505 CE. His lineage is not known either, but judging from Procopius, who mentions the humble origins of Justinian, Theodora and Belisarius’s wife, Antonina, he doesn’t mention Belisarius having similar origins, which might hint at a more upper-class upbringing, or Procopius was simply not aware. The early years of his military career are similarly obscured, but according to limited information, he was a member of Justinian’s bodyguard. As with other career military men in Byzantium, he would have likely joined between the ages of 16 to 18. By the age of 25 — just like Hannibal and Napoleon — he was already a General; remarkable as the typical age of Generals in Byzantium was 35. It is unknown, as well, whether his rapid advancement in Byzantine ranks was due to any aristocratic roots, his rare military skills, or a combination of both.

Belisarius was highly regarded for his virtues at a time when men of his stature would not hesitate to employ any means necessary in order to gain rank, societal status and wealth. Procopius in his “Secret History” does not hesitate to scorch the Justinian-Theodora-Antonina triad for what he deemed immoral and scheming behavior. However, his only criticism for Belisarius was that he was manipulated by Antonina, who Procopius thought was a devious and manipulative woman.

Belisarius was often caught in the middle of this triangle, the consequences of which threatened the empire’s stability and Justinian’s dream of restoring the Western Roman Empire. Fortunately, though, luck was on his side, and it was this very luck, during Byzantium’s early expansionist moves that “forgave” these missteps, and set the foundations for the consolidation of the thousand-year empire.

The Persian Wars: Foundational Foe

The heavily armored Sarmatian cataphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Trajan's Column. Sculpture by Apollodorus of Damascus (c. 65-130 CE), 113 CE (Wikicommons)

Undoubtedly, amongst the empire’s many enemies, the most menacing threat was the Sassanian, or Persian, Empire. Worthy successor of both the Achaemenid dynasty (the dissolution of which was caused by the campaign of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE) and the Parthians. The Sassanid Persians featured a combination of the deadliest weapons, namely the light mounted archers and the ultra-heavy war horse “Cataphracts”.

Byzantium’s armed forces were also modernized, even before Justinian’s rule, to face contemporary threats. These threats had compelled the transition from a mighty infantry, like that of Rome, to a mobile force, ready to be deployed anywhere, at any time. Indeed, it was this modernization process that saw the advent of the mighty “Biscuit eaters”, (the “Bucelarii,” named after their favorite biscuit), which formed the core of the elite “Comitati” bodyguards.  The armed forces of the empire also included mounted archers and mercenary Hunnic horse archers, their allegiance, though, was not always guaranteed.

The Battle of Dara against the Persians was Belisarius’s first display of his strategic genius. In 530 AD, a series of events brought the Sassanid Persians outside the fort of Dara, where Belisarius was stationed. Leading an army of 25,000 men against Persia’s 50,000, Belisarius demonstrated superior tactical skills, including making the most of openings left by his opponent, and wielding his cavalry with deadly precision.

Belisarius’s star was on the rise; yet his military genius was clouded by shortcomings and personal plagues. At the Battle of Callinicum against the Sassanid Persians a year later (531 CE), Belisarius had the numerical advantage, but still lost the battle. This was largely due to his choice of observing from the ground, thus minimizing his visibility and perspective. Moreover, even though he had initially chosen to wait until after Easter was celebrated (which would have given him a day to observe the battlefield in advance), he yielded to his soldiers’ enthusiasm and insistence on fighting as soon as possible. Belisarius was noble and loyal to a fault, but he also had a soft spot for his troops. This soft spot had cost him the Battle of Callinicum and his title of “Magister militum per Orientem” (Supreme Commander of the East). It would later cost him a lot more.

The losses at Callinicum were so heavy that both sides were reluctant to keep fighting. The Sassanid Persians and Byzantines signed a peace treaty — The Treaty of Eternal, or Perpetual, Peace — that would last just eight years. This concluded what is known as the “Iberian War” (526-532 CE).

The Nika Riot

Immediately after this loss, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian also had trouble at home, and Belisarius would have a second chance to prove his worth by putting down the Nika riot in 532 CE. This riot is largely considered to be the most brutal quelling of civic unrest in history, wherein the first Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was also destroyed. (Justinian would rebuild it, constructing the now legendary landmark).

First, a note on Byzantine politics: before Justinian came to the throne, the emperor’s reign was not absolute. Instead, the emperor had to consider numerous constituents, including the army, the political aristocracy, the people of Constantinople, and the large agricultural masses of the provinces. In the core of this decision making “matrix” stood the Charioteers Sports clubs, who carried out chariot races in the Hippodromes of the empire’s major cities of Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch. In the 6^th Century CE, there were two major sports clubs, the Blues and the Greens. These factions had an oversized influence on the empire’s politics, so much so that the Hippodrome in Constantinople was considered the “political barometer” of the empire.

Mosaic representing the Blues and the Greens.

On the eve of the Nika Riot in 532, Justinian had just finished implementing several major fiscal reforms that consolidated his power. These reforms included reducing government spending and imposing tariffs on trade. At the same time, he cut the salaries of army members and political employees. The people were on the verge of open rebellion, as a result. And a common place to express their discontent was at the chariot races in the Hippodrome.

Constantinople, The Hippodrome, ca. 1450. (Source: Onofrio Panvinio, De ludis circensibus, libri II [Venice, 1600], 60-61; plate engraved by Étienne Dupérac before 1568)

The inciting factor for these riots was a smaller, post-race skirmish the week before between the factions — or demes — of the Blues (Veneti) and the Greens (Prasani). This brawl resulted in the murder of several people, and several people were arrested. The perpetrators were set for execution, but two of the prisoners — a Blue and a Green — escaped when the gallows collapsed. They took refuge in a nearby church, and subsequently became the focus for all of the local anti-Justinian sentiment.

The Blues and Greens clubs put aside their quarrels and joined forces. Indeed, the two demes united, chanting together “Nika,” meaning “win” or “victory.” This new united group spearheaded an all-out rebellion and pushed for the election of a new emperor, Hypatius, who was the nephew of the former emperor Anastasius. Justinian panicked and was ready to leave the capital and abdicate, but his wife, Empress Theodora, counseled him against it with an impassioned speech, giving ample space to Belisarius to quench the riot in blood.

“I agree with the adage that the royal purple is the noblest shroud.” - Empress Theodora in her speech to the Council; The Ravenna mosaic. (Wikicommons)

While the rioters were centralized in the Hippodrome, Belisarius and another general, Mundus, took up arms on opposite sides of the crowd. Then, Narses, a eunuch and a major military figure who would be critical in Justinian’s campaign in Italy, had the task of blocking all the building’s exits. The crowd was infiltrated by Justinian’s spies, who started cheering in favor of the emperor, thus driving the rioters to fight against each other. Belisarius and Mundus took advantage of the situation, entered the Hippodrome and began an intervention, which turned into a bloodbath. Contemporaneous sources estimate that between 30,000 - 35,000 people were killed and large parts of Constantinople burned to the ground.

The Nika riots solidified Justinian’s absolute hegemony, and the sports clubs would never again meddle in the empire’s politics. The riots also underlined once again Belisarius’ charisma and his loyalty to Justinian. He was soon tasked with taking up the campaigns against the Vandals in North Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy.

PART II - BELISARIUS: OF VANDALS AND VISIGOTHS in the next newsletter.

---

Alexandros Boufesis has an Msc in International Security Studies (London Metropolitan University) and a PgC in Counter-Terrorism (St Andrews). Alexandros has worked for many years as a Freelance article writer and an investigative journalist covering topics on military history, geopolitics and defense.

---

Primary Materials

Procopius, Henry Bronson Dewing (Translator) (2023): The History of the Wars: Complete Works: The Persian War, The Vandalic War & the Gothic War

Procopius, Peter Sarris (Ed.), G. A. Williamson (Translator) (2007):The Secret History

Secondary Sources and further reading

I.Hughes (2009): Belisarius: The Last Roman General

J.Haldon (2008): The Byzantine Wars

Thanks to a donation from the Rovang family, this post has been sponsored in memory of Philip J. Rovang, father of the founder.